TEACHING
PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES IN AGRICULTURE
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF
PARTICIPATION
Introduction
Welcome to our first lecture where we shall be introduced to the concept of participation, 'in this lecture we shall explore the various interpretations of participation as well as the reasoning behind the differing ways of defining participation.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
Explain the various views and interpretations of participation
Account for the absence of a single universally acceptable way of defining participation
What is participation?
Before we look at how other people define and understand participation, it is important to get your own view or interpretation of the term participation because this may not probably be the first time you come across such a terminology.
Activity
In your day to day endeavors/ activities, you happen to participate in a number of things. Take a few minutes to reflect upon your life and single out only one activity in which you participated and write it down in your notebook. Describe what your role was in the activity you have just written down, and then write down your own understanding of the term participation.
It is important here for you to keep in mind and in print, your definitions or descriptions, since we shall keep referring to them as we go along.
The concept of participation in development and its definitions have evolved over time and there are various interpretations and insights on participation by researchers, academicians, and practitioners. This makes finding a single ideal definition of participation rather difficult. This is because participation is historically related with different ideologies, thereby acquiring different meanings. Given this general lack of a commonly agreed upon meaning of participation, several definitions and interpretations of the concept are available. As a result, the underlying rationale for using a given participatory approach may vary from one context to another and could significantly affect the way methodologies are used.
Whereas some proponents view participation as a result of a bottom-up empowering process, others see it from a project context in a top-down setting focusing on the need to be efficient and effective in order to realize the project’s objectives. Furthermore, many types of processes are frequently subsumed under the term ‘participation" yet t
hese processes vary in the degree and form under which beneficiaries engage in a development project. Therefore, defining participation is intricately linked to the issues of who controls the process of participation, and what outcomes participation intends to bring about
(Perez, 1997).
Also, participation or -participatory - is at times defined as -a catch -all concept that, can coyer almost any kind of involvement. This, according to Bart’s (2004) investigation of participation discourses and practices, is the case because of the different interests and agendas at stake most times, -which compel the promoters of participation to use
strategies that appease the different actors to obtain their collaboration. As a result, the
actors prefer to keep the participatory dialogue (talk) vague or unclear.
Some of the common definitions of participation include:
An active process by which beneficiary or client groups influence the direction and execution of a development project with a view of enhancing their well-being in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance or other values they cherish(Paul,1987).
A process of empowerment of the deprived and the excluded; this is based on recognition of differences in political and economic power among different social groups and classes. Participation in this sense necessitates the creation of organisations of the poor which are democratic, independent and self-reliant! (Ghai, 1990);
A process through which stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them. (World Bank, 1994/96);
People’s involvement in decision-making process, in implementing programs, sharing benefits of development programs and their involvement in efforts to evaluate such programs (Cohen & Uphoff, 1977).
Refer to Activity 1.1 above and compare and contrast your own definition of participation with the definitions listed above. In your own opinion, what characterizes the definitions given above?
From activity 1.2, you may have realized that the interpretations of participation given above reflect:
The broad nature of the process of participation:
• The fact that the interpretation is based on each agency’s development interests
The lack of a single universal interpretation or models of participation applicable to all development programs and projects
That many development projects attempt to make explicit statements on what they understand by participation -which is instrumental in determining their strategy and methodology.
What you should note also is the fact that participation has various dimensions as we shall see in the subsequent lectures.
DIMENSIONS OF PARTICIPATION
Introduction
In lecture 1, we were introduced to the concept of participation and we learnt that because there are various definitions and interpretations of participation by different researchers, academics and practitioners, there is no single definition of participation that is generally 'agreed upon. In lecture 2, we continue to look at the concept of participation by looking at the many views or dimensions of participation.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the different dimensions of participation
Dimensions of participation
In defining participation and translating it into real development situations, there are - several dimensions reflecting the diverse views that arise -as well as the associated practices which characterize the interpretations. These include the views of:
Participation as a means
Participation as an end
Participation as
Participation as Organisation
Participation as empowerment
Participation as responsibility
Let us now look at each of these dimensions in detail;
Participation as a means: The view of participation as means is seen as a process
Whereby local people co-operate or collaborate with externally introduced development programs or projects. In this view, people’s participation is
Sponsored by an external agency and this is seen as a technique to support the progress of the program or project. Essentially, the agency promotes participation as a means of ensuring the successful outcome of activities undertaken.
This view also considers participation as a way of harnessing the existing physical, economic and social resources of the rural people to achieve the previously established objectives of the development program more efficiently and effectively, the strategy being to reform and improve. The term 'participatory development' is thus more commonly used to describe this process and view (of participation as a means), and implies externally designed development activities implemented in a participatory manner. Examples of such initiatives may include; Local Government Development Program (LGDP) initiatives in districts and /or in Sub-counties, National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) program and interventions of NGOs in their areas of operation.
Participation as an end: In this view, Participation is seen as ‘a goal in itself. The goal can be expressed as empowerment of people in terms of acquiring new skills, knowledge and experience to take greater responsibility for their development, and leading to greater self-reliance. In this respect, Participation is considered as;
An instrument to break poor peoples’ exclusion and lack of access to and control over resources in order to sustain and improve their lives, with the intention of empowering them to take more control over their lives.
A process which unfolds over time and its purpose is to strengthen the capabilities of the rural people to intervene (get involved) more directly in development initiatives and control their own developments.
c. Involving a process of empowering and liberation for achieving power by using the strategy of structural change.
Activity
Drawing from your own experience of? Knowledge about rural areas, explain situations which you think fit the above descriptions of participation as an end.
Participation as contribution: The view of participation as contribution implies a voluntary or other form of contribution of the rural people to pre-determined programs and projects in return for some perceived or expected benefits -which reflects;
A project or program nature of participation (passive participation), not linked to changing fundamental problems.
Existence of a non-institutionalized base of participation (this is implied by the definition).
Participation is also considered here as a -voluntary contribution by the people -to one or another of the public programs supposed to contribute to national development -but where the people are not expected to take part in shaping the program or criticizing its content (see -Economic Commission for Latin America, ).
Participation as Organization:
Activity
In your notebook, write down what you understand by the terms an organization and organizing
Explain how the two terms (organization and organizing) relate to participation
With due respect to what you have written in activity 2.2 above, it is important to draw your attention to the fact that;
An organization (a structure of recognized and accepted roles e.g. a university, a consultancy firm... etc) is considered as a fundamental instrument of participation in such a way that organizations are either:
® Externally conceived, whereby the implementing agencies reform formal organizations or create new ones within existing socio-political framework OR,
• Emerging as a result of the process of participation. The later aspect is more difficult to achieve as it may evoke hostility of existing national and local structures.
On the other hand, an alternative view also recognizes the importance of organization(s) but, seeks to encourage rural people to determine its nature and structure: [“e.g. in view of the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD), 1979; ...‘active organization of the poor can only be brought about by adequate people’s organization at the local level’].
v. Participation as empowerment:
In your own opinion, what do the term(s) empower and empowerment mean?
In addition to what you have just written above, please note that the empowerment view regards participation as developing the skills and abilities to enable rural people manage better and decide on aspects, which they feel appropriate. It equates participation with achieving some kind of power, access to and control of resources necessary to protect or sustain livelihoods, and working towards structural changes’, e.g. “[‘the organized efforts to increase control over resources and regulative institutions in given social situations, on part of the groups and movements of those hitherto excluded from such
- control’]”
Furthermore, it stresses control, power and autonomy, which goes together with mental change and perceptions of the beneficiaries. The outsider's role is in this case that of a facilitator of learning and organizational processes. Thus participation I participatory approaches conceived along this view imply;
An active process where a person or group takes initiative and asserts his/her autonomy to do so, which -helps to break the mentality of dependence; promote self-awareness among people to confront their problems; as well as having an intrinsic value for participants (self-esteem or confidence).
Organized efforts to increase control over resources and regulative institutions, in a given social situation, on part of groups and movements of those hitherto excluded from such control. This argument stresses conscientisation, awareness of the structural causes of poverty, from which action arises against opposers.
Activity
Identify a group in your home village which you would describe as having been empowered and show how the above descriptions match the group activities.
vi. Participation as Responsibility: This view, is based on the premises that active involvement in decision making can be more than just delivering information, and does include some responsibility. The argument assumes that people, who have the right and duty to participate in solving their own problems, should have greater responsibilities in assessing the needs, mobilizing local resources and suggesting t
solutions as well as creating and maintaining local organizations. Along these lines, participation is seen to:
Generate ownership which motivates people to maintain the project's dynamics after the completion
Be important in effecting the required behavioral changes
Be catalyst for other development efforts, taking up activities with multiplier effects
Increase the capabilities of communities to handle their affairs and control and exploit their environment.
Together with one or more of your colleagues, analyze any two randomly selected dimensions of participation and list down their similarities and differences. Prepare to present your views for discussion during the face-to-session
You need to note that;
Although it is argued that all stakeholders work collaboratively to advance development projects, it is recognized that the various stakeholders have different levels of power; different interests and resources. Accordingly, arrangements are needed to level the playing field and enable the different stakeholders interact in an equitable and genuinely collaborative manner, which can be achieved through use of certain methods and tools (World Bank: Participation Source Book).
People participation in development is generally concerned with two things
Structural relationships and the importance of developing people’s capacities and skills to negotiate and to seek the resources and changes which they require in order to improve their lives; and
The methods and techniques whereby local people can be brought to play a part and develop a stake in development
Programs and projects.
Whereas the former seeks to secure a more long term and sustainable development for the poor people, the latter is crucial in improving immediate access to the benefits of development.
In lecture 2 we have continued to look at the concept of participation and we have learnt that different people/ practitioners have differing views about the concept of participation. These differing views have different practical implications for development work.
Self-Assessment Test
1. Give the differences between the definitions of participation as a means and as an end.
2. Write down reasons to explain why there is no single universally recognized way of defining participation.
Shepherd, A. (1998) Sustainable rural Development. London: MacMillan Press (Chapter 7 Participation. Pp 179-205)
Leeuwis C. with Van den Ban, A. W. (2004), Communication for Rural innovation. Rethinking Agricultural extension. Blackwell publishers, Oxford UK. (Chapter 14; The management of interactive Innovation processes).
